Newborn

Register      Login

VOLUME 3 , ISSUE 3 ( July-September, 2024 ) > List of Articles

REVIEW ARTICLE

Camel Milk as a Source of Nutrients and Immunogens for Infants

Taherah Mohammadabadi, Gunjana Kumar

Keywords : Arid, Atopy, Camel milk, Composition, Food security, Health, Nanobodies, Semi-arid, Superfood, Vitamin C

Citation Information : Mohammadabadi T, Kumar G. Camel Milk as a Source of Nutrients and Immunogens for Infants. 2024; 3 (3):195-205.

DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-11002-0106

License: CC BY-NC 4.0

Published Online: 30-09-2024

Copyright Statement:  Copyright © 2024; The Author(s).


Abstract

Camel milk stands as a vital resource for infants in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite representing a modest 0.36% of global milk production, its nutritional composition is remarkable. With 3.4% protein, 4.4% lactose, and 3.5% fat, it offers a unique blend of nutrients that is comprised of higher levels of essential vitamins and minerals compared with cow's milk. Notably, its vitamin C content surpasses that of cow's milk by a significant margin. This nutritional powerhouse is particularly beneficial for individuals allergic to cow's milk, as it lacks β-lactoglobulin. Beyond its nutritional profile, camel milk contains nanobodies that stimulate immune responses, unsaturated fatty acids for heart health, and insulin-like proteins that are stomach-friendly. Moreover, its probiotic bacteria aid in reducing cholesterol absorption and possess antibacterial properties, further enhancing its health benefits. In essence, camel milk transcends its role as mere sustenance, emerging as a potent superfood with the potential to address various health complications.


PDF Share
  1. Alavi F, Salami M, Emam-Djomeh Z, et al. Nutraceutical properties of camel milk. In: Watson RR, Collier RJ, Preedy VR (eds.). Nutrients in Dairy and their Implications on Health and Disease. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Academic Press; 2017. pp. 451–468.
  2. Oselu S, Ebere R, Arimi JM. Camels, Camel Milk, and Camel Milk Product Situation in Kenya in Relation to the World. Int J Food Sci 2022;2022:1237423. DOI: 10.1155/2022/1237423.
  3. Bansal N, Baumgard LH, Everett LDD, et al. Dairy Animal Management. 3 ed: Academic Press, Elsevier; 2022. p. 4878.
  4. Mihic T, Rainkie D, Wilby KJ, et al. The Therapeutic Effects of Camel Milk: A Systematic Review of Animal and Human Trials. J Evid Based Integr Med 2016;21(4):NP110–126. DOI: 10.1177/2156587216658846.
  5. Zibaee S, Hosseini SM, Yousefi M, et al. Nutritional and Therapeutic Characteristics of Camel Milk in Children: A Systematic Review. Electron Physician 2015 Nov;7(7):1523–1528. DOI: 10.19082/1523.
  6. Arain MA, Salman HM, Ali M, et al. A Review on Camel Milk Composition, Techno-Functional Properties and Processing Constraints. Food Sci Anim Resour 2024;44(4):739–757. DOI: 10.5851/kosfa.2023.e18.
  7. Alhaj O, Al Kanhal HA. Compositional, technological and nutritional aspects of dromedary camel milk. Int Dairy J 2010;20(12):811–821. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2010.04.003.
  8. El Hatmi H, Jrad Z, Salhi I, et al. Comparison of composition and whey protein fractions of human, camel, donkey, goat and cow milk. Mljekarstvo 2015;65(3):159–167. DOI: 10.15567/MLJEKARSTVO.2015.0302.
  9. Al-Gedan Mubarak M, Al-Agruin H, Alomayri A, et al, editors. Monitoring of camel milk production and composition in intensive dairy farm. Silk road camel: The camelids, main stake for sustainable development; 2015. Almaty, Kazakhstan: Veterinariâ; 2015.
  10. Gorban AM, Izzeldin OM. Fatty acids and lipids of camel milk and colostrum. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2001;52(3):283–287. DOI: 10.1080/713671778.
  11. Mohammadabadi T. Camel Milk as an amazing remedy for health complications – A Review Basrah J Agric Sci 2020;33(2). DOI: 10.37077/25200860.2020.33.2.11.
  12. Aqib AI, Kulyar MF, Ashfaq K, Bhutta ZA, et al. Camel milk insulin: pathophysiological and molecular repository. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019;88(1):497–504. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.009.
  13. El Agamy ES. Camel Milk. In: Park YW, Haenlein GFW, editors. Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals. Oxford, U. K.: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. p. 297–344.
  14. Hinz K, O'Connor PM, Huppertz T, et al. Comparison of the principal proteins in bovine, caprine, buffalo, equine and camel milk. J Dairy Res 2012;79(2):185–191. DOI: 10.1017/S0022029912000015.
  15. Laleye LC, Jobe B, Wasesa AA. Comparative study on heat stability and functionality of camel and bovine milk whey proteins. J Dairy Sci 2008;91(12):4527–4534. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008–1446.
  16. Devendra K, Verma KA, Chatli MK, et al. Camel's milk: alternative milk for human consumption and its health benefits. Nutr Food Sci 2016;46:217–227. DOI: 10.1108/NFS-07-2015-0085.
  17. Felfoul I, Lopez C, Gaucheron F, et al. A laboratory investigation of cow and camel whey proteins deposition under different heat treatments. Food Bioprod Process 2015;96:256–263. DOI: 10.1016/j.fbp.2015.09.002.
  18. Ellouze M, Lajnaf R, Zouari A, et al. Camel alpha-lactalbumin at the oil-water interface: Effect of protein concentration and pH change on surface characteristics and emulsifying properties. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020;189:110654. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110654.
  19. Atri MS, Saboury AA, Yousefi R, et al. Comparative study on heat stability of camel and bovine apo and holo alpha-lactalbumin. J Dairy Res 2010;77(1):43–49. DOI: 10.1017/S0022029909990367.
  20. Si Ahmed Zennia S, Mati A, Saulnier F, Verdier Y, et al. Identification by FT-ICR-MS of Camelus dromedarius alpha-lactalbumin variants as the result of nonenzymatic deamidation of Asn-16 and Asn-45. Food Chem 2015;187:305–313. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.04.036.
  21. Liu C, Liu LX, Yang J, et al. Exploration and analysis of the composition and mechanism of efficacy of camel milk. Food Biosci 2023;53(1):102564. DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2023.102564.
  22. Park YW, Haenlein GFW. Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2013.
  23. Azwai SM, Carter SD, Woldehiwet Z. Immunoglobulins of camel (Camelus dromedarius) colostrum. J Comp Pathol 1996;114(3):273–282. DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9975(96)80049-1.
  24. Konuspayeva G, Serikbayeva A, Loiseau G, et al. Lactoferrin of camel's milk in Kazakhstan. In: Faye B, Esenov P, editors. Desertification Combat and Food Safety: The Value of Camel Producers. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press; 2005. pp. 158–167.
  25. Mohammadabadi T, Jain R, Rehman AU, et al. Camel Milk – A Nutritious Superfood for Health Complications. Milk Sci Int 2023;76(6):35–43. DOI: 10.48435/MSI.2023.6.
  26. Panwar R, Grover CR, Kumar V, et al. Camel milk: Natural medicine – Boon to dairy industry. Karnal, India 2015 [Available from: https://www.dairyfoods.com/ext/resources/White_Papers/Camel-milk-Natural-medicine-Boon-to-dairy-industry.pdf.
  27. Hailu Y, Hansen EB, Seifu E, et al. Functional and technological properties of camel milk proteins: A review. J Dairy Res 2016;83(4): 422–429. DOI: 10.1017/S0022029916000686.
  28. Abdalla KO. An overview of the therapeutic effects of camel milk in the treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Biomol Res Therap 2014;3:118–124. DOI: 10.4172/2167-7956.1000118.
  29. Fukuda K. Camel Milk. In: Park YW, Haenl GFW, editors. Milk and dairy products in human nutrition: Production, composition and health 2013. pp. 578–593.
  30. Terio KA, McAloose D, Leger JS. Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals: Elsevier Science; 2025.
  31. Arbabi-Ghahroudi M. Camelid single-domain antibodies: Historical perspective and future outlook. Front Immunol 2017;8:1589. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01589.
  32. Arbabi-Ghahroudi M. Camelid single-domain antibodies: Promises and challenges as lifesaving treatments. Int J Mol Sci 2022;23(9). DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095009.
  33. Korish AA. The antidiabetic action of camel milk in experimental type 2 diabetes mellitus: An overview on the changes in incretin hormones, insulin resistance, and inflammatory cytokines. Horm Metab Res 2014;46(6):404–411. DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1368711.
  34. Daley LP, Kutzler MA, Bennett BW, et al. Effector functions of camelid heavy-chain antibodies in immunity to West Nile virus. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2010;17(2):239–246. DOI: 10.1128/CVI.00421-09.
  35. Daley-Bauer LP, Purdy SR, Smith MC, et al. Contributions of conventional and heavy-chain IgG to immunity in fetal, neonatal, and adult alpacas. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2010;17(12):2007–2015. DOI: 10.1128/CVI.00287-10.
  36. El-Fakharany EM, El-Baky NA, Linjawi MH, et al. Influence of camel milk on the hepatitis C virus burden of infected patients. Exp Ther Med 2017;13(4):1313–1320. DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4159.
  37. Mahala N, Mittal A, Lal M, et al. Isolation and characterization of bioactive lactoferrin from camel milk by novel pH-dependent method for large scale production. Biotechnol Rep (Amst) 2022;36:e00765. DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2022.e00765.
  38. Actor JK, Hwang SA, Kruzel ML. Lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator. Curr Pharm Des 2009;15(17):1956–1973. DOI: 10.2174/138161209788453202.
  39. Li X, Li Z, Xu E, et al. Determination of lactoferrin in camel milk by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using an isotope-labeled winged peptide as internal standard. Molecules 2019;24(22). DOI: 10.3390/molecules24224199.
  40. Shori AB. Camel milk as a potential therapy for controlling diabetes and its complications: A review of in vivo studies. J Food Drug Anal 2015;23(4):609–618. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2015.02.007.
  41. Agrawal RP, Sharma P, Gafoorunissa SJ, et al. Effect of camel milk on glucose metabolism in adults with normal glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes in Raica community: A crossover study. Acta Biomed 2011;82(3):181–186.
  42. Abdelgadir WS, Ahmed TK, Dirar HA. The traditional fermented milk products of the Sudan. Int J Food Microbiol 1998;44(1–2):1–13. DOI: 10.1016/s0168-1605(98)00090-7.
  43. Cheikh Ismail L, Osaili TM, Mohamad MN, et al. Camel milk consumption patterns and perceptions in the UAE: A cross-sectional study. J Nutr Sci 2022;11:e59. DOI: 10.1017/jns.2022.55.
  44. El Agamy EI, Nawar M, Shamsia SM, et al. Are camel milk proteins convenient to the nutrition of cow milk allergic children? Small Ruminant Res 2009;82(1):1–6. DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2008.12.016.
  45. Selo I, Clement G, Bernard H, et al. Allergy to bovine beta-lactoglobulin: Specificity of human IgE to tryptic peptides. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29(8):1055–1063. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1999.00612.x.
  46. Singh R, Mal G, Kumar D, et al. Camel milk: An important natural adjuvant. Agric Res 2017;6(1):327–340. DOI: 10.1007/s40003-017- 0284-4.
  47. Shori AB, Baba AS. Comparative antioxidant activity, proteolysis and in vitro α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition of Allium sativum-yogurts made from cow and camel milk. J Saudi Chem Soc 2014;18(5):456–463. DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2011.09.014.
  48. Mohammadabadi T, Jain R. Lactic acid bacteria of camel milk for health promotion. EC Nutr 2023;17(6):7–13.
  49. da Costa EL, da Rocha Gontijo JA, Netto FM. Effect of heat and enzymatic treatment on the antihypertensive activity of whey protein hydrolysates. Int Dairy J 2007;17:632–640. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2006.09.003.
  50. Mal G, Sahani MS. Changes in chemical and macro-minerals content of dromedary milk during lactation. J Camel Practice Res 2007;14(2):195–197.
  51. Meena S, Rajput YS, Pandey AK, et al. Camel milk ameliorates hyperglycaemia and oxidative damage in type-1 diabetic experimental rats. J Dairy Res 2016;83(3):412–419. DOI: 10.1017/S002202991600042X.
  52. Faye B, Konuspayeva G, Narmuratova M, et al. The comparative fatty acid composition of milk in Bactrian camel, dromedary, mare, cow and goat. J Camelid Sci 2008;1:49–54.
  53. Konuspayeva G, Lemarie É, Faye B, et al. Fatty acid and cholesterol composition of camel's (Camelus bactrianus, Camelus dromedarius and hybrids) milk in Kazakhstan. Dairy Sci Technol 2008;88:327–340. DOI: 10.1051/dst:2008005.
  54. Ereifej KI, Alu'datt MH, Al Khalidy HA, et al. Comparison and characterisation of fat and protein composition for camel milk from eight Jordanian locations. Food Chem 2011;127(1):282–289. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.12.112.
  55. Dreiucker J, Vetter W. Fatty acids patterns in camel, moose, cow and human milk as determined with GC/MS after silver ion solid phase extraction. Food Chem 2011;126(2):762–771. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.061.
  56. El Hassan SMBM, Dowelmadina IMM, El Zubeir IEM. Effect of management system, parity orders and stages of lactation on chemical composition of camel milk. J Vet Med Animal Prod 2015;6(2):136–142.
  57. Garcia C, Lutz NW, Confort-Gouny S, et al. Phospholipid fingerprints of milk from different mammalians determined by 31P NMR: Towards specific interest in human health. Food Chem 2012;135(3):1777–1783. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.111.
  58. Faye B, Bengoumi M. Camel clinical biochemistry and hematology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2018.
  59. Shehata MM, Moussa EA. Evaluation of therapeutic efficiency of camel milk on alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Am Sci 2014;10(2):53–60.
  60. Konuspayeva G, Faye B, Bengoumi M. Mineral status in camel milk: A critical review. Anim Front 2022;12(4):52–60. DOI: 10.1093/af/vfa c044.
  61. Faye B, Konuspayeva G, Bengoumi M. Vitamins of camel milk: A comprehensive review. J Camelid Sci 2019;12(1):17–32. Available from: http://www.isocard.net/en/journal.
  62. De Almeida C, Ronald R. Leche de camello: Características y perspectivas para uso en clínica. Revista chilena de nutrición 2011;38(2):211–218. DOI: 10.4067/S0717-75182011000200011.
  63. Claeys WL, Verraes C, Cardoen S, et al. Consumption of raw or heated milk from different species: An evaluation of the nutritional and potential health benefits. Food control 2014;42:188–201. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.01.045.
  64. Mehaia MA. Vitamin C and riboflavin content in camels milk: Effects of heat treatments. Food Chem 1994;50(2):153–155. DOI: 10.1016/0308-8146(94)90113-9.
  65. Konuspayeva G, Faye B, Loiseau G. Variability of vitamin C content in camel milk from Kazakhstan. J Camelid Sci 2011;4(1):63–69.
  66. Alhomida AS, Junaid MA, A-Jafari AA. Total, free, short-chain and long-chain acyl carnitine levels in Arabian Camel milk (Camelus dromedarius). J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 1997;13(1):381–387.
  67. Cardoso RR, Santos RM, Cardoso CR, et al. Consumption of camel's milk by patients intolerant to lactose. A preliminary study. Rev Alerg Mex 2010;57(1):26–32.
  68. Konuspayeva G, Baubekova A, Akhmetsadykova S. Concentrations in D- and L-lactate in raw cow and camel milk. J Camel Practice Res 2019;26(1):111–120. DOI: 10.5958/2277-8934.2019.00 016.X.
  69. Badr G, Ramadan NK, Sayed LH, et al. Why whey? Camel whey protein as a new dietary approach to the management of free radicals and for the treatment of different health disorders. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2017;20(4):338–349. DOI: 10.22038/IJBMS.2017.8573.
  70. Alhaj OA, Taufik E, Handa Y, et al. Chemical characterisation of oligosaccharides in commercially pasteurised dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk. Int Dairy J 2013;28(2):70–75. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2012.08.008.
  71. Morin DE, Rowan LL, Hurley WL. Comparative study of proteins, peroxidase activity and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase activity in llama milk. Small Rum Res 1995;17(3):255–261. DOI: 10.1016/0921-4488(95)00679-F
  72. Gizachew A, Teha J, Birhanu T, et al. Review on medicinal and nutritional values of camel milk. Nature Sci 2014;12(12):35–41.
  73. Swelum AA, El-Saadony MT, Abdo M, et al. Nutritional, antimicrobial and medicinal properties of Camel's milk: A review. Saudi J Biol Sci 2021;28(5):3126–3136. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021. 02.057.
  74. Benkerroum N, Mekkaoui M, Bennani N, et al. Antimicrobial activity of camel's milk against pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes. Int J Dairy Tech 2004;57(1):39–43. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.2004.00127.x.
  75. Kamal AM, Salama OA, El Saied KM. Changes in amino acids profile of camel milk protein during the early lactation. Int J Dairy Sci 2007;2(3):226–234. DOI: 10.3923/ijds.2007.226.234.
  76. Jrad Z, El Hatmi H, Adt I, et al. Effect of digestive enzymes on antimicrobial, radical scavenging and angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory activities of camel colostrum and milk proteins. Dairy Sci Technol 2014;94(3):205–224. DOI: 10.1007/s13594-013- 0154-1.
  77. Konuspayeva G, Faye B, Loiseau G, et al. Physiological change in camel milk composition (Camelus dromedarius) 2: Physico-chemical composition of colostrum. Trop Anim Health Prod 2010;42(3):501–505. DOI: 10.1007/s11250-009-9450-4.
  78. El Hatmi H, Girardet JM, Gaillard JL, et al. Characterisation of whey proteins of camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk and colostrum. Small Ruminant Res 2007;70(2–3):267–271. DOI: 10.1016/J.SMALLRUMRES.2006.04.001.
  79. Alhaj OA, Faye B, Agrawal RP. Handbook of research on health and environmental benefits of camel products: IGI Global; 2019.
  80. El-Hatmi H, Levieux A, Levieux D. Camel (Camelus dromedarius) immunoglobulin G, alpha-lactalbumin, serum albumin and lactoferrin in colostrum and milk during the early post partum period. J Dairy Res 2006;73(3):288–293. DOI: 10.1017/S00220299060 01713.
  81. Zhang H, Yao J, Zhao D, et al. Changes in chemical composition of Alxa bactrian camel milk during lactation. J Dairy Sci 2005;88(10):3402–3410. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)73024-1.
  82. Abou-Soliman NH, Elmetwaly HA. Milk insulin content of Egyptian lactating camels. Int J Food Nutr Sci 2018;7(2):52–57.
  83. Wernery U, Hanke B, Braun F, et al. The effect of heat treatment on some camel milk constituents. Milchwissenschaft 2003;58(5): 277–279.
  84. Ji RM, Zhang HP, So YL. Chemical compositions and dynamic changes of Mongolian Gobi Red Bactrian camel milk. Chinese J Food Sci 2007;28(8):399–403.
  85. Fukuda K, Yamamoto A, Ganzorig K, et al. Chemical characterization of the oligosaccharides in Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) milk and colostrum. J Dairy Sci 2010;93(12):5572–5587. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2010-3151.
  86. FAO. Camel Milk Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2024 Available from: https://www.fao.org/4/X6528E/X6528E02.htm.
  87. Vici G, Belli L, Biondi M, et al. Gluten free diet and nutrient deficiencies: a review. Clin Nutr 2016;35(6):1236–1241. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.05.002.
  88. Mohamed HE, Mousa HM, Beynen AC. Ascorbic acid concentrations in milk from Sudanese camels. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2005;89(1–2):35–37. DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2004.00507.x.
  89. Stahl T, Sallmann HP, Duehlmeier R, et al. Selected vitamins and fatty acid patterns in dromedary milk and colostrum. J Camel Prac Res 2006;13(1):53–57.
  90. Zouari A, Schuck P, Gaucheron F, et al. Microstructure and chemical composition of camel and cow milk powders’ surface. LWT 2019;117:108693. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108693.
  91. Behrouz S, Saadat S, Memarzia A, et al. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of camel milk. Front Immunol 2022;13:855342. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.855342.
  92. Redwan el RM, Tabll A. Camel lactoferrin markedly inhibits hepatitis C virus genotype 4 infection of human peripheral blood leukocytes. J Immunoassay Immunochem 2007;28(3):267–277. DOI: 10.1080/15321810701454839.
  93. Jrad Z, El-Hatmi H, Adt I, et al. Antilisterial activity of dromedary lactoferrin peptic hydrolysates. J Dairy Sci 2019;102(6):4844–4856. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-15548.
  94. Salwa MQ, Lina AF. Antigenotoxic and anticytotoxic effect of camel milk in mice treated with cisplatin. Saudi J Biol Sci 2010;17(2):159–166. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2010.02.010.
  95. Arab HH, Salama SA, Eid AH, et al. Camel's milk ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis in rats via downregulation of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. Food Chem Toxicol 2014;69:294–302. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.04.032.
  96. Cardoso RR, Ponte M, Leite V. Protective action of camel milk in mice inoculated with Salmonella enterica. Isr Med Assoc J 2013;15(1): 5–8.
  97. Al-Hashem F. Camel's Milk protects against aluminum chloride-induced toxicity in the liver and kidney of white albino rats. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2009;5(3):98–108. DOI: 10.3844/ajbbsp.2009.98.108.
  98. Ming L, Qi B, Hao S, et al. Camel milk ameliorates inflammatory mechanisms in an alcohol-induced liver injury mouse model. Sci Rep 2021;11(1):22811. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02357-1.
  99. Al-Saffar AM. Validating the preeminence of biochemical properties of camel over cow and goat milk during the Covid-19. Food Sci Nutr 2022;10(8):2786–2793. DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.2881.
  100. Shakeel K, Rabail R, Iahtisham Ul H, et al. Camel milk protectiveness toward multiple liver disorders: A review. Front Nutr 2022;9:944842. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.944842.
  101. Ali AH, Li S, Liu SQ, et al. Invited review: Camel milk and gut health-understanding digestibility and the effect on gut microbiota. J Dairy Sci 2024;107(5):2573–2585. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23995.
  102. Khan MZ, Xiao J, Ma Y, et al. Research development on anti-microbial and antioxidant properties of camel milk and its role as an anti-cancer and anti-hepatitis agent. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021;10(5). DOI: 10.3390/antiox10050788.
  103. Chlebowski C, Green JA, Barton ML, et al. Using the childhood autism rating scale to diagnose autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2010;40(7):787–799. DOI: 10.1007/s10803-009-0926-x.
  104. Kandeel M, El-Deeb W. The application of natural camel milk products to treat autism-spectrum disorders: Risk assessment and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2022;2022:6422208. DOI: 10.1155/2022/6422208.
  105. Bashir S, Al-Ayadhi LY. Effect of camel milk on thymus and activation-regulated chemokine in autistic children: Double-blind study. Pediatr Res 2014;75(4):559–563. DOI: 10.1038/pr.2013.248.
  106. Al-Ayadhi LY, Elamin NE. Camel milk as a potential therapy as an antioxidant in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2013;2013:602834. DOI: 10.1155/2013/602834.
  107. Mohammadabadi T. Camel milk: A superfood for diabetic patients. EC Nutr 2022;17(6):7–13. DOI: 10.17352/jfsnt.000048.
  108. Mirmiran P, Ejtahed HS, Angoorani P, et al. Camel milk has beneficial effects on diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. Int J Endocrinol Metab 2017;15(2):e42150. DOI: 10.5812/ijem.42150.
  109. Agrawal RP, Beniwal R, Kochar DK, et al. Camel milk as an adjunct to insulin therapy improves long-term glycemic control and reduction in doses of insulin in patients with type-1 diabetes A 1 year randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2005;68(2):176–177. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2004.12.007.
  110. Agrawal RP, Budania S, Sharma P, et al. Zero prevalence of diabetes in camel milk consuming Raica community of north-west Rajasthan, India. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007;76(2):290–296. DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2006.09.036.
  111. Agrawal RP, Dogra R, Mohta N, et al. Beneficial effect of camel milk in diabetic nephropathy. Acta Biomed 2009;80(2):131–134.
  112. Shabo Y, Barzel R, Margoulis M, et al. Camel milk for food allergies in children. Isr Med Assoc J 2005;7(12):796–798.
  113. Navarrete-Rodriguez EM, Rios-Villalobos LA, Alcocer-Arreguin CR, et al. Cross-over clinical trial for evaluating the safety of camel's milk intake in patients who are allergic to cow's milk protein. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2018;46(2):149–154. DOI: 10.1016/j.aller.2017.06.005.
  114. Seifu E. Camel milk products: innovations, limitations and opportunities. Food Prod Process Nutr 2023;5(1):15–16. DOI: 10.1186/s43014-023-00130-7.
  115. McMahon DJ, Oommen BS. Supramolecular structure of the casein micelle. J Dairy Sci 2008;91(5):1709–1721. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0819.
  116. Seifu E. Recent advances on camel milk: Nutritional and health benefits and processing implications—a review. AIMS Agric Food 2022;7(4):777–804. DOI: 10.3934/agrfood.2022048.
  117. Berhe T, Seifu E, Ipsen R, et al. Processing Challenges and Opportunities of Camel Dairy Products. Int J Food Sci 2017;2017:9061757. DOI: 10.1155/2017/9061757.
  118. Khan IT, Bule M, Ullah R, et al. The antioxidant components of milk and their role in processing, ripening, and storage: Functional food. Vet World 2019;12(1):12–33. DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.12-33.
  119. Konuspayeva G, Faye B. Recent advances in camel milk processing. Animals (Basel) 2021 8;11(4). DOI: 10.3390/ani11041045.
  120. He J, Hai L, Orgoldol K, et al. High-throughput sequencing reveals the gut microbiome of the bactrian camel in different ages. Curr Microbiol 2019;76(7):810–817. DOI: 10.1007/s00284-019-01689-6.
  121. Gao B, Chi L, Zhu Y, et al. An introduction to next generation sequencing bioinformatic analysis in gut microbiome studies. Biomolecules 2021;11(4). DOI: 10.3390/biom11040530.
  122. He J, Guo K, Chen Q, et al. Camel milk modulates the gut microbiota and has anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse model of colitis. J Dairy Sci 2022;105(5):3782–3793. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2021-21345.
  123. Nili H, Bouzari M, Attaran HR, et al. Hyper-immune bovine milk as an immunological and nutritional supplement for COVID-19. Front Nutr 2022;9:868964. DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.868964.
  124. Roybal KT, Lim WA. Synthetic immunology: Hacking immune cells to expand their therapeutic capabilities. Annu Rev Immunol 2017;35:229–253. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-051116-052302.
  125. Irvine DJ, Swartz MA, Szeto GL. Engineering synthetic vaccines using cues from natural immunity. Nat Mater 2013;12(11):978–990. DOI: 10.1038/nmat3775.
PDF Share
PDF Share

© Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) LTD.